NTMS based tractography and segmental diffusion analysis in patients with brainstem gliomas: Risk stratification and clinical potential.

Introduction: Surgery on the brainstem level is associated with a high-risk of postoperative morbidity. Recently, we have introduced the combination of navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) tractography to define functionally relevant motor fibers tracts on the brainstem level to support operative planning and risk stratification in brainstem cavernomas. Research question: Evaluate this method and assess it's clinical impact for the surgery of brainstem gliomas. Material and methods: Patients with brainstem gliomas were examined preoperatively with motor nTMS and DTI tractography. A fractional anisotropy (FA) value of 75% of the individual FA threshold (FAT) was used to track descending corticospinal (CST) and -bulbar tracts (CBT). The distance between the tumor and the somatotopic tracts (hand, leg, face) was measured and diffusion parameters were correlated to the patients' outcome. Results: 12 patients were enrolled in this study, of which 6 underwent surgical resection, 5 received a stereotactic biopsy and 1 patient received conservative treatment. In all patients nTMS mapping and somatotopic tractography were performed successfully. Low FA values correlated with clinical symptoms revealing tract alteration by the tumor (p = 0.049). A tumor-tract distance (TTD) above 2 mm was the critical limit to achieve a safe complete tumor resection. Discussion and conclusion: nTMS based DTI tractography combined with local diffusion analysis is a valuable tool for preoperative visualization and functional assessment of relevant motor fiber tracts, improving planning of safe entry corridors and perioperative risk stratification in brainstem gliomas tumors. This technique allows for customized treatment strategy to maximize patients' safety.

Academic Burnout of Polish Students: A Latent Profile Analysis.

According to Maslach and Leiter, burnout syndrome consists of three elements: exhaustion, cynicism, and a sense of ineffectiveness experienced by individuals in the work environment. However, burnout does not only apply to professional activity but can also be experienced by students pursuing higher education. This is important because the consequences of student burnout can be related to students' mental and physical health. Until recently, the dominant diagnostic trend in the studies of burnout syndrome was based on a variable-focused approach. This approach focuses primarily on identifying subgroups in the population and presents different configurations of the various dimensions of burnout. However, there is emerging research using a person-centered approach and including the analysis of latent profiles to study professional and student burnout. This approach allows us to isolate subgroups of individuals in the study sample who have a similar burnout pattern. It focuses on the differences between individuals, which helps us to look at the phenomenon of professional burnout from a different perspective and shows the individuality of its experience. Our research aimed at identifying latent profiles, was conducted on a sample of 1519 Polish students, and partly confirms reports from other countries. We identified four profiles: low burnout, moderate below-average burnout, moderate above-average burnout, and very high burnout groups.

Diagnosis and treatment of meralgia paresthetica between 2005 and 2018: a national cohort study.

The prevalence of meralgia paresthetica (MP), which is caused by compression of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (LFCN), has been increasing over recent decades. Since guidelines and large-scale studies are lacking, there are substantial regional differences in diagnostics and management in MP care. Our study aims to report on current diagnostic and therapeutic strategies as well as time trends in clinical MP management in Germany. Patients hospitalized in Germany between January 1, 2005, and December 31, 2018, with MP as their primary diagnosis were identified using the International Classification of Disease (ICD-10) code G57.1 and standardized operations and procedures codes (OPS). A total of 5828 patients with MP were included. The rate of imaging studies increased from 44% in 2005 to 79% in 2018 (p < 0.001) and that of non-imaging diagnostic studies from 70 to 93% (p < 0.001). Among non-imaging diagnostics, the rates of evoked potentials and neurography increased from 20%/16% in 2005 to 36%/23% in 2018 (p < 0.001, respectively). Rates of surgical procedures for MP decreased from 53 to 37% (p < 0.001), while rates of non-surgical procedures increased from 23 to 30% (p < 0.001). The most frequent surgical interventions were decompressive procedures at a mean annual rate of 29% (± 5) throughout the study period, compared to a mean annual rate of 5% (± 2) for nerve transection procedures. Between 2005 and 2018, in-hospital MP care in Germany underwent significant changes. The rates of imaging, evoked potentials, neurography, and non-surgical management increased. The decompression of the LFCN was substantially more frequent than that of the LFCN transection, yet both types of intervention showed a substantial decrease in in-hospital prevalence over time.

Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Part II: Consensus on the Management of Neurogenic Thoracic Outlet Syndrome by the European Association of Neurosurgical Societies' Section of Peripheral Nerve Surgery.

BACKGROUND: In the first part of this report, the European Association of Neurosurgical Societies' section of peripheral nerve surgery presented a systematic literature review and consensus statements on anatomy, classification, and diagnosis of thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) along with a subclassification system of neurogenic TOS (nTOS). Because of the lack of level 1 evidence, especially regarding the management of nTOS, we now add a consensus statement on nTOS treatment among experienced neurosurgeons. OBJECTIVE: To document consensus and controversy on nTOS management, with emphasis on timing and types of surgical and nonsurgical nTOS treatment, and to support patient counseling and clinical decision-making within the neurosurgical community. METHODS: The literature available on PubMed/MEDLINE was systematically searched on February 13, 2021, and yielded 2853 results. Screening and classification of abstracts was performed. In an online meeting that was held on December 16, 2021, 14 recommendations on nTOS management were developed and refined in a group process according to the Delphi consensus method. RESULTS: Five RCTs reported on management strategies in nTOS. Three prospective observational studies present outcomes after therapeutic interventions. Fourteen statements on nonsurgical nTOS treatment, timing, and type of surgical therapy were developed. Within our expert group, the agreement rate was high with a mean of 97.8% (± 0.04) for each statement, ranging between 86.7% and 100%. CONCLUSION: Our work may help to improve clinical decision-making among the neurosurgical community and may guide nonspecialized or inexperienced neurosurgeons with initial patient management before patient referral to a specialized center.

Rationale and design of the peripheral nerve tumor registry: an observational cohort study.

AIM: Peripheral nerve tumors (PNT) are rare lesions. To date, no systematic multicenter studies on epidemiology, clinical symptoms, treatment strategies and outcomes, genetic and histopathologic features, as well as imaging characteristics of PNT were published. The main goal of our PNT Registry is the systematic multicenter investigation to improve our understanding of PNT and to assist future interventional studies in establishing hypotheses, determining potential endpoints, and assessing treatment efficacy. METHODS: Aims of the PNT registry were set at the 2015 Meeting of the Section of Peripheral Nerve Surgery of the German Society of Neurosurgery. A study protocol was developed by specialists in PNT care. A minimal data set on clinical status, treatment types and outcomes is reported by each participating center at initial contact with the patient and after 1 year, 2 years, and 5 years. Since the study is coordinated by the Charité Berlin, the PNR Registry was approved by the Charité ethics committee (EA4/058/17) and registered with the German Trials Registry (www.drks.de). On a national level, patient inclusion began in June 2016. The registry was rolled out across Europe at the 2019 meeting of the European Association of Neurosurgery in Dublin. RESULTS: Patient recruitment has been initiated at 10 centers throughout Europe and 14 additional centers are currently applying for local ethics approval. CONCLUSION: To date, the PNT registry has grown into an international study group with regular scientific and clinical exchange awaiting the first results of the retrospective study arm.

Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Part I: Systematic Review of the Literature and Consensus on Anatomy, Diagnosis, and Classification of Thoracic Outlet Syndrome by the European Association of Neurosurgical Societies' Section of Peripheral Nerve Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Although numerous articles have been published not only on the classification of thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) but also on diagnostic standards, timing, and type of surgical intervention, there still remains some controversy because of the lack of level 1 evidence. So far, attempts to generate uniform reporting standards have not yielded conclusive results. OBJECTIVE: To systematically review the body of evidence and reach a consensus among neurosurgeons experienced in TOS regarding anatomy, diagnosis, and classification. METHODS: A systematic literature search on PubMed/MEDLINE was performed on February 13, 2021, yielding 2853 results. Abstracts were screened and classified. Recommendations were developed in a meeting held online on February 10, 2021, and refined according to the Delphi consensus method. RESULTS: Six randomized controlled trials (on surgical, conservative, and injection therapies), 4 "guideline" articles (on imaging and reporting standards), 5 observational studies (on diagnostics, hierarchic designs of physiotherapy vs surgery, and quality of life outcomes), and 6 meta-analyses were identified. The European Association of Neurosurgical Societies' section of peripheral nerve surgery established 18 statements regarding anatomy, diagnosis, and classification of TOS with agreement levels of 98.4 % (±3.0). CONCLUSION: Because of the lack of level 1 evidence, consensus statements on anatomy, diagnosis, and classification of TOS from experts of the section of peripheral nerve surgery of the European Association of Neurosurgical Societies were developed with the Delphi method. Further work on reporting standards, prospective data collections, therapy, and long-term outcome is necessary.

Physiological variables in association with spreading depolarizations in the late phase of ischemic stroke.

Physiological effects of spreading depolarizations (SD) are only well studied in the first hours after experimental stroke. In patients with malignant hemispheric stroke (MHS), monitoring of SDs is restricted to the postoperative ICU stay, typically day 2-7 post-ictus. Therefore, we investigated the role of physiological variables (temperature, intracranial pressure, mean arterial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure) in relationship to SD during the late phase after MHS in humans. Additionally, an experimental stroke model was used to investigate hemodynamic consequences of SD during this time window. In 60 patients with MHS, the occurrence of 1692 SDs was preceded by a decrease in mean arterial pressure (-1.04 mmHg; p = .02) and cerebral perfusion pressure (-1.04 mmHg; p = .03). Twenty-four hours after middle cerebral artery occlusion in 50 C57Bl6/J mice, hypothermia led to prolonged SD-induced hyperperfusion (+2.8 min; p < .05) whereas hypertension mitigated initial hypoperfusion (-1.4 min and +18.5%Δ rCBF; p < .01). MRI revealed that SDs elicited 24 hours after experimental stroke were associated with lesion progression (15.9 vs. 14.8 mm³; p < .01). These findings of small but significant effects of physiological variables on SDs in the late phase after ischemia support the hypothesis that the impact of SDs may be modified by adjusting physiological variables.

Reduction in wound healing complications and infection rate by lumbar CSF drainage after decompressive hemicraniectomy.

OBJECTIVE: Wound healing disorders and surgical site infections are the most frequently encountered complications after decompressive hemicraniectomy (DHC). Subgaleal CSF accumulation causes additional tension of the scalp flap and increases the risk of wound dehiscence, CSF fistula, and infection. Lumbar CSF drainage might relieve subgaleal CSF accumulation and is often used when a CSF fistula through the surgical wound appears. The aim of this study was to investigate if early prophylactic lumbar drainage might reduce the rate of postoperative wound revisions and infections after DHC. METHODS: The authors retrospectively analyzed 104 consecutive patients who underwent DHC from January 2019 to May 2021. Before January 2020, patients did not receive lumbar drainage, whereas after January 2020, patients received lumbar drainage within 3 days after DHC for a median total of 4 (IQR 2-5) days if the first postoperative CT scan confirmed open basal cisterns. The primary endpoint was the rate of severe wound healing complications requiring surgical revision. Secondary endpoints were the rate of subgaleal CSF accumulations and hygromas as well as the rate of purulent wound infections and subdural empyema. RESULTS: A total of 31 patients died during the acute phase; 34 patients with and 39 patients without lumbar drainage were included for the analysis of endpoints. The predominant underlying pathology was malignant hemispheric stroke (58.8% vs 66.7%) followed by traumatic brain injury (20.6% vs 23.1%). The rate of surgical wound revisions was significantly lower in the lumbar drainage group (5 [14.7%] vs 14 [35.9%], p = 0.04). A stepwise linear regression analysis was used to identify potential covariates associated with wound healing disorder and reduced them to lumbar drainage and BMI. One patient was subject to paradoxical herniation. However, the patient's symptoms rapidly resolved after lumbar drainage was discontinued, and he survived with only moderate deficits related to the primary disease. There was no significant difference in the rate of radiological herniation signs. The median lengths of stay in the ICU were similar, with 12 (IQR 9-23) days in the drainage group compared with 13 (IQR 11-23) days in the control group (p = 0.21). CONCLUSIONS: In patients after DHC and open basal cisterns on postoperative CT, lumbar drainage appears to be safe and reduces the rate of surgical wound revisions and intracranial infection after DHC while the risk for provoking paradoxical herniation is low early after surgery.

Motor excitability in bilateral moyamoya vasculopathy and the impact of revascularization.

OBJECTIVE: Motor cortical dysfunction has been shown to be reversible in patients with unilateral atherosclerotic disease after cerebral revascularization. Moyamoya vasculopathy (MMV) is a rare bilateral stenoocclusive cerebrovascular disease. The aim of this study was to analyze the corticospinal excitability and the role of bypass surgery in restoring cortical motor function in patients by using navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS). METHODS: Patients with bilateral MMV who met the criteria for cerebral revascularization were prospectively included. Corticospinal excitability, cortical representation area, and intracortical inhibition and facilitation were assessed by nTMS for a small hand muscle (first dorsal interosseous) before and after revascularization. The clinically and/or hemodynamically more severely affected hemisphere was operated first as the leading hemisphere. Intra- and interhemispheric differences were analyzed before and after direct or combined revascularization. RESULTS: A total of 30 patients with bilateral MMV were examined by nTMS prior to and after revascularization surgery. The corticospinal excitability was higher in the leading hemisphere compared with the non-leading hemisphere prior to revascularization. This hyperexcitability was normalized after revascularization as demonstrated in the resting motor threshold ratio of the hemispheres (preoperative median 0.97 [IQR 0.89-1.08], postoperative median 1.02 [IQR 0.94-1.22]; relative effect = 0.61, p = 0.03). In paired-pulse paradigms, a tendency for a weaker inhibition of the leading hemisphere was observed compared with the non-leading hemisphere. Importantly, the paired paradigm also demonstrated approximation of excitability patterns between the two hemispheres after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: The study results suggested that, in the case of a bilateral chronic ischemia, a compensation mechanism between both hemispheres seemed to exist that normalized after revascularization surgery. A potential role of nTMS in predicting the efficacy of revascularization must be further assessed.

NTMS mapping of non-primary motor areas in brain tumour patients and healthy volunteers.

OBJECTIVE: Navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS) has been increasingly used for presurgical cortical mapping of the primary motor cortex (M1) but remains controversial for the evaluation of non-primary motor areas (NPMA). This study investigates clinical and neurophysiological parameters in brain tumour patients and healthy volunteers to decide whether single-pulse biphasic nTMS allows to reliably elicite MEP outside from M1 or not. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twelve brain tumour patients and six healthy volunteers underwent M1 nTMS mapping. NPMA nTMS mapping followed using 120% and 150% M1 resting motor threshold (RMT) stimulation intensity. Spearman's correlation analysis tested the association of clinical and neurophysiological parameters between M1 and NPMA mapping. RESULTS: A total of 88.81% of nTMS stimulations in NPMA in patients/83.87% in healthy volunteers in patients/83.87% in healthy volunteers did not result in MEPs ≥ 50 µV. Positive nTMS mapping in NPMA correlated with higher stimulation intensity and larger M1 areas in patients (120% M1 RMT SI p = 0.005/150% M1 RMT SI p = 0.198). CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that in case of positive nTMS mapping in NPMA, MEPs originate mostly from M1. For future studies, MEP parameters and TMS coil rotation should be studied closely to assess the risk for postoperative motor deterioration.

The Corticospinal Reserve Capacity: Reorganization of Motor Area and Excitability As a Novel Pathophysiological Concept in Cervical Myelopathy.

BACKGROUND: In degenerative cervical myelopathy (DCM), the dynamics of disease progression and the outcome after surgical decompression vary interindividually and do not necessarily correlate with radiological findings. OBJECTIVE: To improve diagnostic power in DCM by better characterization of the underlying pathophysiology using navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS). METHODS: Eighteen patients with DCM due to cervical spinal canal stenosis were examined preoperatively with nTMS. On the basis of the initial Japanese Orthopedic Association (JOA) Score, 2 patient groups were established (JOA ≤12/>12). We determined the resting motor threshold, recruitment curve, cortical silent period, and motor area. Accordingly, 8 healthy subjects were examined. RESULTS: Although the resting motor threshold was comparable in both groups (P = .578), the corticospinal excitability estimated by the recruitment curve was reduced in patients (P = .022). In patients with only mild symptoms (JOA > 12), a compensatory higher activation of non-primary motor areas was detected (P < .005). In contrast, patients with severe impairment (JOA ≤ 12) showed a higher cortical inhibition (P < .05) and reduced cortical motor area (P < .05) revealing a functional restriction on the cortical level. CONCLUSION: Based on these results, we propose a new concept for functional compensation for DCM on the cortical and spinal level, ie corticospinal reserve capacity. nTMS is a useful tool to noninvasively characterize the pattern of functional impairment and compensatory reorganization in patients suffering from DCM. The change in nTMS parameters might serve as a valuable prognostic factor in these patients in the future.

Standard-sampling microdialysis and spreading depolarizations in patients with malignant hemispheric stroke.

Spreading depolarizations (SD) occur in high frequency in patients with malignant hemispheric stroke (MHS). Experimentally, SDs cause marked increases in glutamate and lactate, whereas glucose decreases. Here, we studied extracellular brain glutamate, glucose, lactate, pyruvate and the lactate/pyruvate ratio in relationship to SDs after MHS. We inserted two microdialysis probes in peri-infarct tissue at 5 and 15 mm to the infarct in close proximity to a subdural electrode strip. During 2356.6 monitoring hours, electrocorticography (ECoG) revealed 697 SDs in 16 of 18 patients. Ninety-nine SDs in electrically active tissue (spreading depressions, SDd) were single (SDds) and 485 clustered (SDdc), whereas 10 SDs with at least one electrode in electrically inactive tissue (isoelectric SDs, SDi) were single (SDis) and 103 clustered (SDic). More SDs and a significant number of clustered SDs occurred during the first 36 h post-surgery when glutamate was significantly elevated (> 100 µM). In a grouped analysis, we observed minor glutamate elevations with more than two SDs per hour. Glucose slightly decreased during SDic at 5 mm from the infarct. Directions of SD-related metabolic changes correspond to the experimental setting but the long sampling time of standard microdialysis precludes a more adequate account of the dynamics revealed by ECoG.

Motor plasticity after extra-intracranial bypass surgery in occlusive cerebrovascular disease.

OBJECTIVE: To explore plasticity in patients scheduled for extra-intracranial bypass surgery due to unilateral symptomatic occlusive cerebrovascular disease via navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation. METHODS: In this observational study, patients were allocated to different substudies and examined before and 3 months after operation. (1) Corticospinal excitability was determined via identification of the resting motor threshold. (2) Intracortical inhibition and facilitation were tested by paired pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation. (3) Area of cortical representation of the first dorsal interosseous muscle was identified. RESULTS: (1) Resting motor thresholds were higher in the affected hemispheres with impaired cerebrovascular reserve capacity compared to the unaffected hemispheres (45.7% ± 2.2% compared to 39.2% ± 1.4%, n = 39, p < 0.05). Reduced excitability normalized 3 months after revascularization (51% ± 2.6% → 45% ± 1.9%, n = 21, p < 0.05). (2) In paired pulse paradigms, there was a motor disinhibition in the operated hemispheres. (3) There was a reduction of the cortical representation areas of the first dorsal interosseous muscle (2.3 ± 0.5 cm(2) → 0.9 ± 0.6 cm(2), n = 9, p < 0.05) after operation. CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate a reversibly impaired motor cortical function in the chronically ischemic brain. In carefully selected patients, cerebral revascularization leads to improved motor output indicated by a lower resting motor threshold, intracortical disinhibition, and more focused motor cortical representation.

Evaluation of urban environment pollution based on the accumulation of macro- and trace elements in epiphytic lichens.

Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, zinc, nickel, copper, manganese, iron and lead accumulation properties of three epiphytic lichen species (Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl., Parmelia sulcata Taylor and Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr.) were compared. An assessment of pollution of the municipal environment in Slupsk (Poland) according to macro- and trace elements was also done. Lichen samples were taken in Autumn 2013 from Betula pendula, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer platanoides, A. pseudoplatanus and Populus sp. trees. Sampling stations comprised of house development areas, green urban parks, vicinity of streets with heavy traffic and industrial enterprises. It was found that lichens represent diverse accumulation properties to pollutants according to the species. X. parietina indicated the highest bioaccumulation in relation to N, K, Mg, Zn and Fe, the thalli of H. physodes accumulated the largest amounts of Ni and Pb, while P. sulcata P and Cu. Manganese was accumulated in similar quantities by all species. Evidences acquired by the use of factor analysis proved that pollution in Slupsk municipal environment is a serious issue with three major sources domination: street dust, marine factor and residual oil combustion. The high-risk areas were detected and visualized using surface maps based on Kriging algorithm. It was seen that the highest pollution occurs in the town centre, while the smallest happened on its outskirts and in urban parks.

Navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation improves the treatment outcome in patients with brain tumors in motor eloquent locations.

BACKGROUND: Neurological and oncological outcomes of motor eloquent brain-tumor patients depend upon the ability to localize functional areas and the respective proposed therapy. We set out to determine whether the use of navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS) had an impact on treatment and outcome in patients with brain tumors in motor eloquent locations. METHODS: We enrolled 250 consecutive patients and compared their functional and oncological outcomes to a matched pre-nTMS control group (n = 115). RESULTS: nTMS mapping results disproved suspected involvement of primary motor cortex in 25.1% of cases, expanded surgical indication in 14.8%, and led to planning of more extensive resection in 35.2% of cases and more restrictive resection in 3.5%. In comparison with the control group, the rate of gross total resections increased significantly from 42% to 59% (P < .05). Progression-free-survival for low grade glioma was significantly better in the nTMS group at 22.4 months than in control group at 15.4 months (P < .05). Integration of nTMS led to a nonsignificant change of postoperative deficits from 8.5% in the control group to 6.1% in the nTMS group. CONCLUSIONS: nTMS provides crucial data for preoperative planning and surgical resection of tumors involving essential motor areas. Expanding surgical indications and extent of resection based on nTMS enables more patients to undergo surgery and might lead to better neurological outcomes and higher survival rates in brain tumor patients. The impact of this study should go far beyond the neurosurgical community because it could fundamentally improve treatment and outcome, and its results will likely change clinical practice.

The reliability of topographic measurements from navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation in healthy volunteers and tumor patients.

BACKGROUND: Navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS) is increasingly being used for preoperative mapping of the motor cortex. Any new technology should undergo rigorous validation before being widely adopted in routine clinical practice. The aim of this experimental study was to assess the intraexaminer and interexaminer reliability of topographic mapping with nTMS. METHODS: nTMS mapping of the motor cortex for the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle was performed by an expert and a novice examiner, twice in ten healthy volunteers and once in ten tumor patients. The distances between the centers-of-gravity and hotspots were calculated, as were coefficients of variation. This study also compared orthogonal versus variable orientation of the stimulation coil. RESULTS: The mean (range) distance between centers-of-gravity for the expert examiner in the test-retest protocol with healthy volunteers was 4.40 (1.86-7.68) mm. The mean (range) distance between centers-of-gravity for the expert vs. novice examiner was 4.89 (2.39-9.22) mm. There were no significant differences in this result between healthy volunteers and tumor patients. CONCLUSIONS: nTMS is sufficiently reliable for clinical use, but examiners should make efforts to minimize sources of error. The reliability of nTMS in tumor patients appears comparable to healthy subjects.

Assessing the functional status of the motor system in brain tumor patients using transcranial magnetic stimulation.

BACKGROUND: Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is being used in the pre-operative diagnostics of patients with tumors in or near the motor cortex. Although the main purpose of TMS in such patients is to map the functional areas of the motor cortex in spatial relation to the tumor, TMS also provides some numerical neurophysiological measurements of the functional status of the patient's motor system. The aim of this paper is to provide reference values for these neurophysiological measurements from a large and varied clinical sample. METHODS: TMS was used in the pre-operative work-up of patients with various types of tumors in or near the motor cortex during a 3-year period. Data was collected prospectively in 100 patients, yet this is a post hoc report. RESULTS: Patient characteristics had no influence on the neurophysiological parameters. The response latency time was almost never different in the tumorous versus healthy hemisphere, so clinicians should be suspicious if they find interhemispheric differences for latency. A high interhemispheric ratio of resting motor threshold (RMT) or a low interhemispheric ratio of motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude appear to suggest immanent deterioration of the patient's motor status. CONCLUSION: In addition to topographic cortical mapping, TMS also serves as a neurophysiological assessment of the functional status of the patient's motor system. The results presented here provide clinicians with a set of reference values to contextualize findings in their own tumor patients. Further research is still needed to better understand the full clinical relevance of these neurophysiological parameters.